Alexander III was one of the most important popes of the Middle Ages. His papacy (1159-81) marked a significant watershed in the history of the Western Church and Society. It was dominated by major political clashes between secular and spiritual authority, in particular his seventeen-year conflict with the German emperor. The papacy and Church emerged as stronger institutions from this struggle largely thanks to Alexander's political acumen and resilience. His pontificate indeed witnessed the extension of papal and Church authority into many areas of life. This was resisted in England by Henry II in his famous struggle against Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, but Alexander exploited Becket's martyrdom in 1170 in order to defend the Church's claims against the lay power. Under Alexander the Church established and consolidated its jurisdiction over many issues, and a rising number of petitioners across the West sought papal justice. Alexander made many contributions to the law...

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